Salient features of Indian Constitution

PREAMBLE:

WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:

JUSTICE, social, economic and political;

LIBERTY, of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;

EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;

and to promote among them all

FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;

IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, DO HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION

1. Preamble: The Preamble, the preface to the constitution, describes the source nature, ideology, goals and objectives of the constitution. It describes India as a sovereign socialist, secular, democratic republic and underlines the-national objective of social just: economic justice and political justice as well as fraternity. It emphasises the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation. It declares that in India the people sovereign.

Copyright Act

‘The sweat of a man’s brows, and the exudations of a man’s brains, is as much as a man’s own property as the breeches upon his backside’.

Sterne, ‘Tristram Shandy’.

The law of intellectual property protects things which are created by people’s skill, labour, and investment of time and money. Patents protect scientific developments, and trademarks to prevent unfair advantage being taken of the goodwill of established businesses.

The law of copyright protects two kinds of investment. It protects authors’ labours by copyright in books, scripts, articles and so on. It also protects the investors who provide the technology necessary to produce broadcasts, films and records. Copyright is the exclusive right to use material in certain ways.

The law of copyright is important to journalists because it determines what they can quote or use in their reports. It is also important to establish what rights a journalist, newspaper or television company, have to exploit their own work, and prevent others from taking the benefit of it.

Development communication

•          Communication:

–         As a most pervasive form of social relationships

•          Development:

–         One of the most complex forms of social change. Development as referring to processes at the system level; while modernization referring to processes at the individual level.

•          Communications Development:

–         Development of communication infrastructure and systems

–         As role of communication in “development’ or ‘social change’

–         Communications for Development

–         Development Support Communication

a.       The era before the C4D discourse

b.       The bullet theory

c.        The indirect effects era

d.       The two step flow hypothesis

e.        Experiments in developing countries

•          The First Five Year Plan

•          Radio rural forums

Content analysis

Content analysis may be defined as a methodology by which the researcher seeks to determine the manifest content of written, spoken, or published communications by systematic, objective, and quantitative analysis. It is a means of trying to learn something about people by examining what they write, produce on television, or make movies about.
It is used to investigate the content of the Mass Media (although it has applications across a wider range of spheres – the analysis of historical documents, for example). In other words, it’s used to explore the content of various media (books, magazines, TV, film etc.,) in order to discover how particular issues are presented.
At its most basic, content analysis is a statistical exercise that involves categorising some aspect or quality of people’s behaviour and counting the number of times such behaviour appears (a simple content analysis might involve counting the number of minutes men and women appear on screen in a programme such as “Big Brother”). In this way, content analysis helps us to build-up a picture of the patterns of behaviour that the social interaction portrayed in the media.

Preparing Research Report

Research is as close to a professional problem-solving activity as anything in the curriculum. It provides exposure to research methods and an opportunity to work closely with a faculty advisor, graduate students, and sometimes post doctoral fellows and visiting scientists. Research usually requires the use of advanced concepts, a variety of experimental techniques, and state-of-the-art instrumentation. Ideally, undergraduate research should focus on a well-defined project that stands a reasonable chance of completion in the time available. A literature survey alone is not a satisfactory research project. Neither is repetition of established procedures.

Research: Quasi-experiment

A quasi-experiment is an empirical study used to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on its target population. Quasi-experimental research designs share many similarities with the traditional experimental design or randomized controlled trial, but they specifically lack the element of random assignment to treatment or control. Instead, quasi-experimental designs typically allow the researcher to control the assignment to the treatment condition, but using some criterion other than random assignment (e.g., an eligibility cutoff mark) . In some cases, the researcher may have no control over assignment to treatment condition.

Quasi-experiments are subject to concerns regarding internal validity, because the treatment and control groups may not be comparable at baseline. With random assignment, study participants have the same chance of being assigned to the intervention group or the comparison group. As a result, the treatment group will be statistically identical to the control group, on both observed and unobserved characteristics, at baseline (provided that the study has adequate sample size). Any change in characteristics post-intervention is due, therefore, to the intervention alone. With quasi-experimental studies, it may not be possible to convincingly demonstrate a causal link between the treatment condition and observed outcomes. This is particularly true if there are confounding variables that cannot be controlled or accounted for.

Research: Observation Method

OBSERVATION METHOD

The observation method involves human or mechanical observation of what people actually do or what events take place during a buying or consumption situation. “Information is collected by observing process at work. ”The following are a few situations:-

1.        Service Stations-Pose as a customer, go to a service station and observe.

2.                  To evaluate the effectiveness of display of Dunlop Pillow Cushions-In a departmental store, observer notes:- a) How many pass by; b) How many stopped to look at the display; c) How many decide to buy.

3.                  Super Market-Which is the best location in the shelf? Hidden cameras are used.

4.                  To determine typical sales arrangement and find out sales enthusiasm shown by various salesmen-Normally this is done by an investigator using a concealed tape-recorder.

Research: Survey method

SURVEY METHOD

The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions to people who are thought to have desired information. A formal list of questionnaire is prepared. Generally a non disguised approach is used. The respondents are asked questions on their demographic interest opinion.

Advantages of Survey Method

1.                  As compared to other methods (direct observation, experimentation) survey yield a broader range of information. Surveys are effective to produce information on socio-economic characteristics, attitudes, opinions, motives etc and to gather information for planning product features, advertising media, sales promotion, channels of distribution and other marketing variables.

2.                  Questioning is usually faster and cheaper that Observation.

3.                  Questions are simple to administer.

4.                  Data is reliable

5.                  The variability of results is reduced.

6.                  It is relatively simple to analyze, quote and interrelate the data obtained by survey method.

Research: Sample Method

It is important for the investigator to decide whether to use sample or census method for collecting data. The selection primarily depends upon the nature and extent of the enquiry and the degree of accuracy desired. At the same time, the scope of the enquiry, its cost, the time of enquiry, the selection and training of the enumerators etc. are also to be taken into account. Basically, accuracy and precision depends upon the human element. If the human element is perfectly impartial and unbiased then best results can be expected from either method. In the absence of it, the results may be distorted.
Types of Sampling:
In the sampling method a representative group of items from the population are selected. These groups of items are called samples. These samples represent the whole universe. Therefore the selection of samples is crucial in this method. It is rightly said, “Samples are like medicines. They can be harmful when taken carelessly or without knowledge of their effects. Every good sample should have a proper label with instructions about its use”. So while selecting samples, a number of factors should be considered. Some of the important factors are:
i) the nature of the population
ii) the distribution of items in the population
iii) the characteristics to be studied
iv) availability of data
v) availability of both financial and human resources etc.

Research: Scientific Method

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the scientific method as: "a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses."

The chief characteristic which distinguishes the scientific method from other methods of acquiring knowledge is that scientists seek to let reality speak for itself,[discuss] supporting a theory when a theory's predictions are confirmed and challenging a theory when its predictions prove false. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methods of obtaining knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies to test these hypotheses via predictions which can be derived from them. These steps must be repeatable, to guard against mistake or confusion in any particular experimenter. Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind many independently derived hypotheses together in a coherent, supportive structure. Theories, in turn, may help form new hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context.